Dao Companion to the Philosophy of Mencius

Xiao, Y., & Chong, K. C. (Eds.). (2023). Dao Companion to the Philosophy of Mencius. Springer Nature.


Chapter 2 Unravelling the Connections Between the Mozi and the Mencius

处理authorship的方式:The convention to refer to "Mozi" and "Mencius" as the representative voices of the two relevant books is also applied in this chapter. 对疑古派的回避,而采用的方法论,hermeneutics of informed ignorance,即只关心二者的某些联系,而不总论全部。

出土文献的启发:早期中国文献是长期编纂而成。因此,不能说《墨子》全书篇章都先于《孟子》。But since textual research since the Qing dynasty and unearthed manuscripts in the last decades have increasingly shown that early Chinese books are the result of various contributors over time, we can no longer assume that every part of the Mozi predates every part of the Mencius. (p. 27)

就孟子论墨子的段落而言,研究问题:What is said about Mo? And who is called Mo here?

孟子对夷之的”爱无差等“的表述根本没出现在《墨子》中。作者分析了《孟子》论墨的四个段落,然后再以此到《墨子》中检讨。Even though Mencius does not refer to any book related to Mo Di, I try to address Mencius’s claims on the basis of the Mozi. (p. 36)

To conclude, the four parts selected from the Mozi to trace the ground for Mencius’s complaints provide a variegated picture, which I have discussed in a tentative chronological order. While the earliest Mohists may have criticized elite habits more than Ru convictions, there are strong and increasing indications that at least some authors of the Mozi were the type of Mohists that Mencius worried about. (p. 44) 确实有部分主张,正是孟子所批评的。结论是,墨子与孟子之间至少存在着共同的知识背景at least a shared intellectual background between the authors of both books (p. 45)。


Chapter 3 Mencius in the Han Dynasty

本文探讨《孟子》文本在赵岐之前的汉代,被引用的情况。有一些我们当下熟知的段落,在汉代却几乎没被提及,如四端2A6. (p. 56) 汉代提到孟子的重要文本主要有:王充《论衡》,扬雄,《盐铁论》。


Chapter 4 The Mencius in the Context of Recently Excavated Texts

本文探究出土文献(战国楚简)对理解孟子哲学的帮助。一,孟子是通过天来故意支持世袭,反对禅让(如唐虞之道)。【感觉Perkins此处似乎解读有误?孟子搬出天,感觉是既不支持世袭、也不支持禅让,是一种骑墙的态度。】二,clarifying the Mengzian philosophical vocabulary, such as 情(如性自命出). 

本文主要探讨《性自命出》和《五行》等一些要素在孟子哲学中的出现。The excavated texts show that there was diverse range of competing Confucian philosophies during the time of Mencius, and that some of these philosophies spread in written form. These debates are the most likely context in which Mencius developed his own views. I have discussed specific connections in the previous sections. On a general level, Mencius's innovation was to integrate the WX's way of heaven with the more naturalistic psychology of XZMC. (p. 76) 孟子哲学融合了《五行》的天论和《性自命出》的自然主义心理学。


Chapter 5 Mengzi's Theory of Human Nature and Its Role in the Confucian Tradition

This essay pays heed to the metaphor of water in Mengzi's Theory of Human Nature.

值得注意的是,Sarah Allan's The Way of Water and Sprouts of Virtue这本书发现先秦水喻与德性的关联性。(p.94)


Chapter 6 Two Visions of Confucianism: Mencius and Xunzi

就孟荀所理解的正统儒家而言,探究孟荀差异。

正宗儒家最重要的特征:孟子仁义(建立正当的父子君臣关系);荀子礼义(实现养和别)。

下一个问题:仁礼关系对于孟荀分别意味着什么?For Mengzi, ritual is just one aspect of the same human nature, while "Xunzi denies that the essence of humanity is also our xing性 (nature)." (p. 107) The author states that "The real difference between Mencius and Xunzi, as I have hinted at, is about the natural foundation of ethical cultivation." (p. 108) "As we have seen, Mencius firmly believes that human beings have ethical qualities by nature. Ethical cultivation for him is mainly to care for and further develop such ethical qualities. Xunzi, on the other hand, does not believe that we have any ethical qualities by nature." (p. 108) 孟荀的真正不同在于道德修养的自然基础。【孟荀对自然理解的差异】

对于荀子而言,成圣如何可能?化性起伪。"Xunzi claims that ritual functions as the markers for the Way (K17.11/H17.238-46). The markers might be invented, but what they are pointing toward is the objective Way." (p. 114) 礼是道的路标,圣人之所以成圣,在于找到了这路标。

总之,孟荀的差别,在于观众不同。孟子在儒家世界观内辩护儒家;荀子在儒家的世界观外辩护儒家。


Chapter 7 Mencius, Zhuangzi and "Daoism"

本章探寻孟子和庄子(或道家)的联系。有八个左右的对话点。"Thus, although no 'Daoist' school was mentioned in the Mencius, some of the ideas in the Zhuangzi can be found therein and are opposed by Mencius. These are: self-preservation and nourishment of one’s own life (including the practice of qi cultivation); morality as an artificial construct; moral skepticism; tian as nonnormative; an ideal primitive life free of hierarchy; and no essential (moral) human nature. As indicated earlier, metaphysical talk about the oneness of all things and dao as the origination of things (as opposed to the dao or way of moral governance) in the Zhuangzi cannot be found in the Mencius." (p. 133)

庄子内篇认为儒家违反自然。然而,孟子恰恰强调一种自然的人性。(p. 124)

"For Mencius, human nature is essentially moral, [...]For Zhuangzi, on the other hand, the lack of an essential human nature means there can be plural norms and conceptions of the good life in both individual and social terms." (p. 127) 儒家的道德理想只是众多可能性的一种,在庄子看来,人类有许多种形式,没有高下之分。


Chapter 8 Cheng Hao and Cheng Yi's Appropriations of the Mencius

该文指出了二程对于孟子解释的重要(正统)地位。二程一定程度上继承了孟子的解释学方法,略带主观地去阅读经典文本,比如认为在某些情况下,可能是文本记录错误(p. 146)。

对性善论的解释上,二程加入了气质之性这一概念,并认为推是人们克服气质之偏的方法。推是区分人类与动物的分界线(p. 151)。【值得注意的是,我感觉,气质这一概念补充了孟子缺乏动物哲学的问题。】

二程用“自得self-getting”区分见闻之知与德性之知。


Chapter 9 Zhu Xi's Appropriation of Mencius's Thought: From a Hermeneutic to a Developmental Approach

本文关注朱熹的孟子解释学(Zhuxi adds his concepts of 理学 to understand Mengzi)。朱熹的:心性论体现解释方法(道德哲学),理气论体现发展方法(形而上学)。

陆只注意孟子的道德哲学,朱熹则注意孟子道德与政治哲学的整体联系。

本文,作者为朱熹辩护,认为牟宗三devaluates Zhuxi.


Chapter 10 Mencius and Wang Yangming

王阳明发展孟子学说。

1,义内righteousness is internal学说,孟子义内被理解为motivation internalism,王阳明则发展为motivation- and-normativity internalism。理也是内在的。

2,良知。致良知的新意:(1)致,是内在知识的外化(而非外在知识的内化)。Wang Yangming's "extending knowledge"  is an externalization of one's innate knowledge through practice. (p. 187) 王勾勒的结构:

heart/mind——{original knowing——thought}——things

(2)良知,避免自欺。

3,自足。孟子的人性只是倾向;王阳明的良知已经完全和自足了。

4,王的一些典型比喻(发展了孟子的哲学比喻)。


Chapter 11 Mencius and Wang Fuzhi

程朱主张,气恶情善;王主张,气善情恶(vital energy is always good.)

Wang: principle and vital energy cannot be separated from each other and this is why vital energy is good. 理气不分,因此气善。(p. 207)

恶的起源? 区分气之动/气之体The function of vital energy and the substance of vital energy,气之动(情、才)产生恶。 (p. 211)


Chapter 12 Jeong Dasan's Interpretation of Mencius: Heaven, Way, Human Nature, and the Human Heart

韩国儒家丁若鏞 (1762–1836) 反对宋明儒学那样哲学化理解孟子,强调自然地伦理学的理解。例如,他认为,理学把恶解释为气质之性,这一定程度上削弱了主体的道德责任。(p. 226)


Chapter 13 Mengzi's View on the Public and the Private 

儒家存在公私之间的张力,孟子通过“仁义”来沟通二者,因为仁义都根植于主体的心。

但同时,这样做的弊病是:公私不分,公德依赖于私德。如舜的问题。


Chapter 18 Hermeneutics in the Mencius: Methods, Context, Divergence

本章作者是黄俊杰,探讨孟子的解释学。

孟子有两种解释学方法:1,以意逆志;2,知人论世。

有意思的是,朱熹把逆解释为等待,强调经典的客观性;但是作者不认可这种解释。(p. 347)

作者认为,知人论世是以意逆志的基础。(p. 351)

可是,孟子有时自己也不遵守自己的解释学方法,比如历史时代错置。(p. 355)


Chapter 19 Mencius and Japanese Confucian Philosophy

本文回顾了孟子在日本的接受史。《孟子》在日本是一个争议性文本。

支持者:伊藤仁斋(古学派),以孟子解论语

反对者:荻生徂徠,孟子的圣人观有误(黄帝伏羲等才是圣人,而非孔子)

近代保守的改造者:吉田松阴,保守地强调尊王攘夷,但削弱了孟子对德性的强调

近代激进的革命者:《草莽杂志》

哲学思考:丸山真男,忠诚与反叛的思考


Chapter 20 Ming 命 and Acceptance

本文研究孟子的“命”这一概念。本文论点:在论孟的语境中,命传达的是顺受acceptance的态度。顺受的态度不同于宿命论(主张向环境投降)。顺受不同于惰性,因为顺受意识到了应然的存在。顺受也不同于认输。认输意味着消极和无助,顺受意味着仍然保持积极参与。

本章还提到了申生的故事。

注意,顺受、孝顺,都有顺这个字。


Chapter 22 Eudaimonism in the Mencius: Fulfilling Human Nature

【本文的表达方式(方法论)值得学习。】

本文重点以1A为基点(视角)讨论孟子,提出的论点是"Mencius' eudaimonism is architectonic to his thought" (p. 410). 

类似的说法。"I have argued that Mencius is a eudaimonist, and his eudaimonism is one of the most central features of his thought. "(p. 435)  "The way in which Mencius introduces account of human nature, in some of the most important passages, suggests that it is in fact motivated in substantial part by his commitment to a eudaimonist approach to moral persuasion." (p. 436) "Eudaimonism thus appears to play an architectonic role within the body of Mencius' thought. " (p. 436)


Chapter 23 Is Mencius a Consequentialist? Rethinking the Relationship Between Yi (Righteousness) and Li (Benefit) in the Mencius

义利关系可以用结果论来解释吗?即,孟子的义,其实就是为了最大的利益。

作者反对这种解读:

1,原文显示,孟子拒绝以结果评判行动。

2,孟子批评结果论的推理方式。

传统解释(朱熹):

1,义本身就是正当的  

2,只考虑义

牟宗三(康德主义):义是道德法则moral law

作者:Mengzi focuses on the character of agents. 

传统解释遇到的结果论的挑战:

1,为什么孟子用产生利的义来劝说某些人(e.g. 梁惠王)?——孟子的劝说(修辞)策略

2,孟子如何避免这些人陷入结果论的危险?

——(1)孟子注重辨志(辨别动机);(2)义产生的利不同于利产生的利;(3)若已经认识到义,就会踏上义的道路。


Chapter 25 Epistemology in the Mencius

探究孟子对“知”的观点(即孟子的知识论)。

在孟子中,“知X”,可能有两种解释:(1)知道如何去做X【实践】;(2)知道命题X【理论】

作者反对这种二元论,主张实践的一元论,即,知X意味着知道如何去做X。——对于(2),即对于知道命题这种情况,实际上指的是主体具有与信念相关的能力。例如,知义,同时意味着,他有行义的能力。

接着,进行中西比较,看看孟子的可能贡献。

美德知识论主张:知识是德性地形成的真信念。

孟子:某人可以运用其理智德性产生知识,但是这知识的价值并不依赖于此。知识的价值(意义)在于我可以以这种知识去做些什么。


【重要!】Chapter 26 Feeling, Reflection, and Reasoning in the Mencius

作者探究,在《孟子》中,情感、思(反思)、理性(推理)之间的关系。作者认为,四端,除了情感的展示,还有认知因素。作者的核心观点:反思与推理有助于塑造情感;情感影响反思、推理。

【注意,该论文引用的一些孟子段落,关注的角度很有启发。比如,齐王感受到了the ox's fear. 我的问题,套用庄子,子非牛,焉知牛之惧?】


Chapter 27 Mencius on Moral Psychology

本章论点:以关心(而非情感)来理解四端。Mencius's ethical sprouts, except for shifei zhi xin 是非之心, which I think is a moral judgment rather than a feeling, are best interpreted as a kind of concern-based construals.


【参考】Chapter 28 The Mencian Triplet of Ceyin Zhi Xin: Perceptive, Affective, and Motivational

对孟子的恻隐之心(被理解为同情现象sympathy)的心理机制作出解释。

本文要论证,孟子哲学的自然主义(人性、天性)解释是其规范伦理的基础。In this chapter, I aim to address the question of how the naturalistic interpretation of Mencian ethics connects with and is the foundation of the normative aspects of Mencian ethics. 

同情有哪些机制呢?瞬时性,如果是慢性的,会降低同情的强度。同时,语境【情境stimmung】。

心理学家给出了五个引起共情的模式:

(a) Mimicry 模仿如打哈欠传染别人

(b) Classical conditioning 因为他人感到忧苦,而条件反射地感到忧苦

(c) Direct association 与过去的痛苦经历相联系

(d) Mediated association 强调一种被中介的同情,如读者读到孟子,感受到同情

(e) Role taking 移情empathy

作者认为,孺子案例应该属于模式c,因为那是瞬时事件。

这五个模式能够互相转换。

作者对恻隐之心的解释:感知-情感-动机。这种三位一体,是对他人苦难的心理机制。

The perceiving of others’ distress, the affective changes, and the motivation to aid together consist a Mencian perceptive-affective-motive triplet; this triplet is a basic reaction to others' distress or situations that are typically associated with distress.

作者列举一系列神经科学的研究。并且打比方,看电影,引起观众的感觉,这是因为有共同的神经基础。

作者进一步归纳出心理学的套娃理论:移情有许多部分组成,如套娃。


作者借助套娃理论,把恻隐之心理解为“感知-情感-动机”的三位一体

孟子的自然主义解释:人的这些自然禀赋,使得利他行为得以可能。


Chapter 29 Mencius's Moral Psychology and Contemporary Cognitive Science

孟子哲学的不同解读方式【可视为文献综述】,有virtue ethics (Cua 2003; Sim 2007; Van Norden 2007; Yu 2001), moral sentimentalism (Choi 2019; Frazer and Slote 2015; Slote 2018), or Kantian ethics (Mou 1990).  ......utilitarian ethics (Tillman 1982). Recently, a new interpretative framework, i.e., role ethics, is developed to the highlight unique characteristics of Confucian philosophy (Rosemont Jr and Ames 2009) [...]. 本文作者则从moral psychology的角度出发。

作者:通过道德情感来解释道德行为。儒家的德性由内在情感性的道德能力陶铸而来。作者给出了关于同情的心理学实验研究。

有关同情的三个概念:1,读心能力;2,共鸣,情感共享;3,关心帮助他人的态度。只有第三个范畴与道德有关。

关于道德心理学的三个门派

Kantian theory: 道德判断基于deliberate reasoning

Humean theory:  基于other-regarding emotions

Rawlsian theory: 基于formal principles of morality

作者认为,孟子则提出了另一种方案,即developmental sentimentalism发展的情操论。对于孟子而言,人就是 (Mencian Creature:) An agent who draws moral judgments from other-concerning, develop-mentally formative, and embodied emotions that come out of the innate inclinations of the moral mind.

孟子道德心理学具有四个特征:兼摄认知-情感、形成的发展的、内在的道德定向、实现(integration of cognition and emotion, formative development, innate moral orientations, and embodiment. )。孟子式生物的特征:三位一体。这是孟子的独有(标志性)特征This psychological complex of affective resonance, emphatic concern and embodied energy, therefore, is a moral psychological triad, an essential and distinguishing characteristic of the Mencian creature. (p. 604)


Chapter 30 Mencius and Augustine: A Feminine Face in the Personal, the Social, and the Political

孟子与奥古斯丁有许多相似的,比如他们的母亲对他们成长的重要性。【二人也都非常关注眼泪!】


Chapter 31 Self-Determination and the Metaphysics of Human Nature in Aristotle and Mencius

本章比较亚里士多德和孟子。亚区分出德性与情绪。情绪是被动的。情受制于外,德性发自于内。【崇内贬外的思想倾向值得反思。外,有时意味着关切、联系】

孟子则强调情,预设人际交往。

关于共同体。亚:城邦在先    孟:个体和家庭在先

亚孟人性的结构的区分:亚:理性有两个部分(理论、实践);孟:心。

亚的第一原则,神,超越万有。孟的第一原则,天,则在人身上得以完成


Chapter 32 Mencius and Aquinas

It mentions the difference between those two thinkers: persuasive literary presentation 文学描述(孟子) vs good theoretical argument 理论论证(阿奎那), in light of human fulfillment.

本文比较研究孟子与阿奎那,关注“成人”human fulfillment问题。

1,最佳的成人问题optimal human fulfillment,与阿奎那不同,孟子并没有对成人问题进行概念化思考。

2,作者接着关注二者写作方式的差异。阿奎那更哲学思辨,孟子更文学化。one highly rational and the other highly literary. 作者注意到,孟子论述的一些特征展示了文学论述与概念论述各自的优劣。特别是,显示了哲学思考中蕴含的宗教之音(p. 657)。

3,关于成人失败的问题(什么阻碍了行善?),阿奎那关注具有普遍性的缺陷本身deficiency,如虚荣;孟子则更在乎特殊的倾向问题,即齐宣王的倾向是否是善的。孟子所说的概念更像倾向,而非德性。


Chapter 33 Mencius and Hume

比较孟子与休谟,因为二者都注意到德性与情感的关联。

sec1比较的方法上,有知识论的比较和结构的比较。后者使我们能够理解二人的情感观点。

sec2借助休谟的因果论框架结构,作者认为,恻隐之心是人性的基础。

sec3 二人的德性论建基于涉他与涉己的德性。涉他,仁;涉己,义。


Chapter 34 Mencius, Dewey, and "Developmental" Human Nature

本文开头讲述了杜威和孟子的因缘。杜威误解孟子的人性论(性善论)为一种本质主义,实际上,孟子的人性论是developmental,性善是可以为善(can become good)。

其次,作者认为,不该用目的论解读中国哲学。中国哲学更注重the continuity between organism-and-environment【一方水土养育一方人,父母在不远游,家,国际旅行】,而目的论则不怎么注重环境因素。作者再借用《道德经》来描绘中国的自然哲学。

最后,作者反思,并对儒学的virtue ethics(特别是比附亚里士多德及其目的论)的进路持有谨慎态度。