閽

van Inwagen, Peter, Meghan Sullivan, and Sara Bernstein, "Metaphysics", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer 2023 Edition), Edward N. Zalta & Uri Nodelman (eds.), URL = <https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2023/entries/metaphysics/>. 1，“形而上学”概念 根据亚里士多德，形而上学研究（三种不同的类似的说法）： The subject-matter of metaphysics is “being as such” The subject-matter of metaphysics is the first causes of things The subject-matter of metaphysics is that which does not change 但是作者建议，鉴于最新的发展，最好以归之于形上学的各种问题来理解形上学。 2，旧的（传统的）形而上学的问题 （1）是本身（第一因、不变的事物） （2）共相Universals：普遍存在于事物的某些性质 （3）实体substance：依其自身而存在的东西（独立自存者）Metaphysicians call the things that exist in their own right ‘substances’ 3，新的（后中世纪的）形而上学的问题 （1）模态(Modality)：关于possibility and necessity 形而上学家关注的模态类型可分为两个阵营：从言模态(modality de dicto)和从物模态(modality de re)。 Modality de dicto is the modality of propositions  modality de re is the modality of things. 蒯因、克里普克、刘易斯 （2）空间与时间(Space and Time) 时空是什么？ 时间的过去、未来，具有不对称性asymmetry吗？为什么？ 在时间的流逝中，...

Chappell, Sophie-Grace and Nicholas Smyth, "Bernard Williams", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer 2023 Edition), Edward N. Zalta & Uri Nodelman (eds.), URL = <https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2023/entries/williams-bernard/>. Williams专业领域在于道德哲学，他反对伦理学的系统化，因为伦理生活是复杂多面的。此人对道德哲学两大贡献：（1）强调主体的诚实integrity或本真authenticity；（2）反柏拉图主义、反还原论主义，以哲学自然主义为旗帜。 他的第一本书 Morality: an introduction to ethics (1972)涉及了许多他作品中的中心议题。 Problems of the Self (1973)， Moral Luck (1981)是其论文集。 Ethics and the Limits of Philosophy (1985)这本书则汇集了他对道德哲学较为集中统一的论述。 Shame and Necessity (1993)则是他在牛津对古希腊伦理学的研究。得了癌症后，出的书 Truth and Truthfulness  (2002)论证了客观真理的重要性（反对罗蒂和德里达对真理的否定）。 他对当代道德哲学持一种消极态度，认为道德哲学被那些系统化的理论家搞得很无聊。 在他的一篇著名论文"Internal and external reasons" (1981: 101–113)中，他主张，所有的理由reason是内在的，没有外在理由。换言之，we cannot have genuine reasons to act that have no connection whatever with anything that we care about.

Perkins, Franklin, "Metaphysics in Chinese Philosophy", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer 2019 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), URL = <https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2019/entries/chinese-metaphysics/>. While there was no word corresponding precisely to the term “metaphysics”, China has a long tradition of philosophical inquiry concerned with the ultimate nature of reality —its being, origins, components, ways of changing, and so on. In this sense, we can speak of “metaphysics” in Chinese Philosophy, even if the particular questions and positions that arose differed from those dominant in Europe.【可见，作者把形而上学理解为这样的学科，它探究实在的终极本性】 两个对中国的形而上学至关重要的关键词：tian 天 (heaven) and ming 命 (the command; fate)。The term tian simultaneously refers to the sky, with senses of the orderly movement of the heavens and of something that encompasses all things equally. The classical Chinese word for the “world” or “realm” is literally what is “under-heaven”, tianxia 天下.  The p...

Aho, Kevin, "Existentialism", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer 2023 Edition), Edward N. Zalta & Uri Nodelman (eds.), URL = <https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2023/entries/existentialism/>. 时代背景 During the Second World War, an entire generation was forced to confront the human condition and the anxiety-provoking givens of death, freedom, and meaninglessness. 关于Existentialism的一些重要观念： 1, Nihilism: The emergence of existentialism as an intellectual movement was influenced by the rise of nihilism in late nineteenth century Europe as the pre-modern religious worldview was replaced with one that was increasingly secular and scientific. This historical transition resulted in the loss of a transcendent moral framework and contributed to the rise of modernity’s signature experiences: anxiety, alienation, boredom, and meaninglessness. 2, Engagement vs. Detachment: Against a philosophical tradition that privileges the standpoint of theoretical detachment an...

德性知识论 Turri, John, Mark Alfano, and John Greco, "Virtue Epistemology",  The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy  (Winter 2021 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), URL = <https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2021/entries/epistemology-virtue/>. 中文版参见：https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s/HrcUr13FC2jLLBWzT5mJcw 德性知识论的思考主题是理智德性the intellectual virtues。它认为，知识论的首要关切应该是理智能动者intellectual agents。 德性知识论的开创者：Ernest Sosa在1980年代早期的工作（见论文集，Sosa 1991）。Sosa用他的“ 德性视角主义”来裁决当代知识论的争论，例如基础主义者和融贯主义者的争论、内在主义者和外在主义者的争论。 传统派：Ernest Sosa试图将知识定义为“源于理智德性”的真实信念（1991: section IV）。 非传统派：非传统的德性知识论的范例是Robert Roberts和Jay Wood’s (2007)的观点，他们认为传统的问题和方法已经让知识论变得黯淡，我们应该将目标放在通过描绘关于理智德性的细微和精细的图像（“地图”）来改革理智文化，并从文学、历史和圣经中自由的汲取资源。非传统的德性知识论的另一个范例是Jonathan Kvanvig's (1992)的论证，他主张德性知识论应该着重探讨德性在培训和教育中的角色。还有一些人主张德性知识论的核心真理应该在跨学科的语境中发展，学习认知、社会和生命科学中的方法和发现（Turri 2015a）。 相关的思想实验 什么才算是知识？（有运气成分？） 1，盖梯尔问题 盖梯尔案例遵循一个秘诀：从一个被充分确证的信念开始，来满足知识确证的条件。然后，加上一个坏运气的因素，这一坏运气通常会妨碍被确证的信念为真。最后再加上一份“抵消坏运气”的好运气，于是最后信念变成了真的。事实证明，我们很难解释为何这种“双重运气”阻碍了知识（...